The Language of Reasoning

The first step for students towards deliberate philosophising is to get greater control over their thinking by becoming more expert in using the language of reasoning.

There are certain words, phrases and concepts that structure any complex thinking, discussion or writing. They are necessary in order to make judgements and to articulate and defend those judgements in discourse with others. Here is a selection of the most important of these expressions organised under four headings related to the kind of work they do. Some expressions necessarily appear under more than one.

• Degree: All/some/none, always/sometimes/never, more/less important, better/worse, impossible/possible/probable/likely/certain, degree

• Kind: Quality, attribute, criterion, All/some/none, is/isn’t, if … then, group, class, is/are, part/whole, example, alternative, addition, kind.

• Relation: Cause, effect, consequence, if … then, same/similar/different, opposite, part/whole, important, significant, best/worst, before/after/at the same time, certain/possible/probable/impossible, means/end/purpose, connection, relation.

• Discourse: question, answer, statement, proposition, hypothesis, opinion, reason, premise, argument, grounds, principle, maxim, assumption/presupposition, evidence, conclusion, if … then, unless.

The English educationalist, philosopher and literary critic I. A. Richards suggested that words like these are amongst the most ‘resourceful’ in the language because they help people think about everything else: In a striking sentence, he says: ‘The senses of these chief words – and their ways of working with and against one another – are the rules of reason’ (Richards 1955, p.10). Let’s relate Richard’s thoughts to some common conceptions of ‘thinking skills’.

Most of the expressions in ‘the language of reasoning’ are necessary for the sorts of operations emphasised by thinking skills initiatives: sorting, classifying, analysing, recognising part/whole relationships, comparing and contrasting, hypothesising, drawing conclusions, justifying conclusions, distinguishing fact from opinion; relating causes and effects, generating options and so on (see Schwartz and Parks, 1994).

We can see that all these operations require the enlightened use of the language of reasoning. In fact comparing is the enlightened use of terms like similar and different for a purpose; justifying is the enlightened use of terms like reason and conclusion. The terms are tools, as are the moves of agreeing and comparing that require the use of those terms.

However, this ‘tool’ metaphor only goes so far. We don’t use the tools one at a time like a carpenter. We have them in our minds all the time, ready to be used together in whatever combination is required in a particular context of thinking, dialogue or writing in any subject area. They are more than tools; they are constituents of the people we have become. Students become reasonable when they are able to use the language of reasoning to keep control of their thoughts, when they understand how resourceful that language can be and when they are disposed to reason with others. And if students can become more reasonable, they will bring their reasoning selves to lessons in all subjects – willing and able to learn better and understand more.

If students are to ‘think for themselves’ then the language of reasoning should be developed deliberately and regularly in conversation and writing. Students become reasonable when they are able to use the language of reasoning to keep control of their thoughts, when they understand how resourceful that language can be and when they are disposed to reason with others. And if students can become more reasonable, they will bring their reasoning selves to lessons in all subjects – willing and able to learn better and understand more.

Routines to develop reasoning
Here are some ideas for helping students appropriate the language of reasoning in the course of regular classroom dialogue.

• Show students how they can enquire systematically into any issue using a succession of questions which incorporate key expressions from the language of reasoning. Show them how you go about putting a series of questions together; prompt them by asking ‘What questions do you have at this point?’ or ‘What do you think your next three questions will be about this?’ Draw their attention to the usefulness of the expressions in framing questions such as ‘What are the alternatives?’ ‘What is similar and different about them?’ What would the consequences be if one of those alternatives were chosen?

• Include short sessions in your lessons in which you draw the attention of students to the different senses of the reasoning words. For example, things can be the same in different senses.

• Use diagrams and written lists to help students when reasons, examples, similarities, or causes need to be gathered and analysed by a group. Diagrams and lists operate to focus joint attention. However, don’t be tempted to think that the benefits of using ‘graphic organisers’ will leak out across the curriculum with no further effort. Regular classroom dialogue is essential.

• Stress the language of reasoning in all the dialogues you have with pupils. Use the language yourself by overlaying it onto students’ contributions; so if one says: ‘I’ve got another idea,’ ask them if they think it is a different idea from those raised so far and, if so, in what ways is it different. If someone says: ‘X happens because of Y’ you might say: ‘So that’s a consequence, what are some of the other possible consequences?’ and ‘which consequences do you think are most important?’ These kinds of moves initiate students into using the language of reasoning to reflect on their own thinking.

• Talk to students about their writing in terms of the language of reasoning. Where are they comparing? Where are they exploring consequences or categorising? How are they doing all these things? Share your own writing with them to show them you do it.

• Use ‘Question and Ideas Books’ for students to record and develop their thoughts. One idea for the books is to provide prompts such as: ‘Write at least four examples of ... ‘ or ‘What are some of the criteria for ...? Then let the students write freely about what follows from their lists or what further questions they have.

• Focus from time to time on one resourceful expression and create an activity to help students become more familiar with the part it plays in reasoning.

REFERENCES

Richards, I. A. (1955) Speculative Instruments, University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Swartz, R.J., & Parks, S. (1994). Infusing the teaching of critical and creative thinking into content instruction, Critical Thinking Books & Software. Pacific Grove, Canada